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Colonialism

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A 1665 illustration of a Dutch East India Company factory in Hugli-Chuchura, depicting various elements of colonialism, including its hierarchies and impact on the colonized and their lands

Colonialism is the practice of extending and maintaining political, social, economic, and cultural domination over a territory and its people by another people in pursuit of interests defined in an often distant metropole, who also claim superiority.[1][2][3][4] While frequently an imperialist project, colonialism functions through differentiating between the targeted land and people, and that of the colonizers (a critical component of colonization). Rather than annexation,[5] this typically culminates in organizing the colonized into colonies separate to the colonizers' metropole.[6][2] Colonialism sometimes deepens by developing settler colonialism, whereby settlers from one or multiple colonizing metropoles occupy a territory with the intention of partially or completely supplanting the existing indigenous peoples, possibly amounting to genocide.[6][7]: 2 [8]

Colonialism monopolizes power by understanding conquered land and people to be inferior, based on beliefs of entitlement and superiority, justified with beliefs of having a civilizing mission to cultivate land and life, historically often rooted in the belief of a Christian mission. These beliefs and the actual colonization establish a so-called coloniality,[9][10][11] which keeps the colonized socio-economically othered and subaltern through modern biopolitics of sexuality, gender, race, disability and class, among others, resulting in intersectional violence and discrimination.[12][13]

While different forms of colonialism have existed around the world, the concept has been developed as a description of European colonial empires of the modern era. These spread globally from the 15th century to the mid-20th century, spanning 35% of Earth's land by 1800 and peaking at 84% by the beginning of World War I.[14] European colonialism employed mercantilism and chartered companies, and established complex colonialities.

Decolonization, which started in the 18th century, gradually led to the independence of colonies in waves, with a particular large wave of decolonizations happening in the aftermath of World War II between 1945 and 1975.[15][16] Colonialism has a persistent impact on a wide range of modern outcomes, as scholars have shown that variations in colonial institutions can account for variations in economic development,[17][18][19] regime types,[20][21] and state capacity.[22][23] Some academics have used the term neocolonialism to describe the continuation or imposition of elements of colonial rule through indirect means in the contemporary period.[24][25]

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  6. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference :0 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
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  11. ^ Cite error: The named reference coloniality was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  12. ^ Stoler, Ann Laura (4 October 1995). Race and the Education of Desire: Foucault's History of Sexuality and the Colonial Order of Things. Duke University Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctv11319d6. ISBN 978-0-8223-7771-9.
  13. ^ Abay, Robel Afeworki; Soldatic, Karen. "Intersectional Colonialities: Embodied Colonial Violence and Practices of Resistance at the Axis of Disability, Race, Indigeneity, Class, and Gender". Routledge & CRC Press. Retrieved 8 March 2024.
  14. ^ Philip T. Hoffman (2015). Why Did Europe Conquer the World?. Princeton University Press. pp. 2–3. ISBN 978-1-4008-6584-0.
  15. ^ Strang, David (1991). "Global Patterns of Decolonization, 1500–1987". International Studies Quarterly. 35 (4): 429–454. doi:10.2307/2600949. ISSN 0020-8833. JSTOR 2600949.
  16. ^ Strang, David (1990). "From Dependency to Sovereignty: An Event History Analysis of Decolonization 1870-1987". American Sociological Review. 55 (6): 846–860. doi:10.2307/2095750. ISSN 0003-1224. JSTOR 2095750.
  17. ^ Acemoglu, Daron; Johnson, Simon; Robinson, James A. (2001). "The Colonial Origins of Comparative Development: An Empirical Investigation". American Economic Review. 91 (5): 1369–1401. doi:10.1257/aer.91.5.1369. ISSN 0002-8282.
  18. ^ Nunn, Nathan (2009). "The Importance of History for Economic Development". Annual Review of Economics. 1 (1): 65–92. doi:10.1146/annurev.economics.050708.143336. ISSN 1941-1383.
  19. ^ Nunn, Nathan (2020). "The historical roots of economic development". Science. 367 (6485). doi:10.1126/science.aaz9986. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 32217703.
  20. ^ Lee, Alexander; Paine, Jack (2024). Colonial Origins of Democracy and Dictatorship. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781009423526. ISBN 978-1-009-42353-3.
  21. ^ Gerring, John; Apfeld, Brendan; Wig, Tore; Tollefsen, Andreas Forø (2022). The Deep Roots of Modern Democracy: Geography and the Diffusion of Political Institutions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781009115223. ISBN 978-1-009-10037-3.
  22. ^ Herbst, Jeffrey (2000). States and Power in Africa: Comparative Lessons in Authority and Control - Second Edition. Vol. 149 (REV - Revised, 2 ed.). Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-16414-4. JSTOR j.ctt9qh05m.
  23. ^ Ali, Merima; Fjeldstad, Odd-Helge; Jiang, Boqian; Shifa, Abdulaziz B (2018). "Colonial Legacy, State-building and the Salience of Ethnicity in Sub-Saharan Africa". The Economic Journal. 129 (619): 1048–1081. doi:10.1111/ecoj.12595. hdl:2263/71163. ISSN 0013-0133.
  24. ^ Stanard, Matthew G. (2018). European Overseas Empire, 1879 – 1999: A Short History. John Wiley & Sons. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-119-13013-0.
  25. ^ Halperin, Sandra (2 December 2023). "Neocolonialism". Neocolonialism | Definition, Examples, & Facts | Britannica. Britannica.
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